Are The Theories Of Thucydides Relevant?

Are The Theories Of Thucydides Relevant? Are Thucydides and his History of the Peloponnesian War still relevant for the analysis of contemporary international relations? Why? It can surely be said that the realism school of thought was created by the great Greek historian Thucydides after his studies on the Peloponnesian Wars. His main assumption, which embodies the realist school of thought, is that relations between states are not based on right but rather on might, and that a state of anarchy prevails. To answer this essay question, the essay will dispute the degree of relevance of Thucydides theories and ideas in the modern world politics, by mainly using the Melian Dialogue as an insight of comparison. Thucydides observations begin during the Peloponnesian Wars between the different Greek city-states (polis). His first recognition was that there was a certain degree of pattern between the strategies adopted by these city-states concerning the relationship between them. He points out a hierarchical system of actions, while a change in smaller states will not make a difference, a change in stronger states car arguably unbalance a whole system. The following quote exemplifies this: What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta. Two reasons can be identified of why the start of the Peloponnesian War. The first reason is the amazing growth of Athens in all spheres, and the second, the release of the Megarian Decree. Athens did this due to its preoccupations about the loyalty of its colonies. The Megarian Decree was essentially an economic sanction towards Megara in order to break its alliance with Sparta, which in turn becomes a threat to Spartas and Corinthian security (Gilpin, 1991: 34). The next chain of events was that the Corinthians made an ultimatum to the Spartans, suggesting a front against the Athenians, otherwise they would form a new alliance, thus harming Spartan security. In response, the Spartans demanded the annulment of the Megarian Decree, however Athens refusal to do so was probably the direct cause of war. Thus the security dilemma can be said to have driven the two powers into an undesired war (Lebow, 1991:127). To compare it with a modern example it has to be mentioned the sudden change in US perception of Soviet power after the Soviet Union launched its first ICBM. This action led to a growing US insecurity, Kennedys concern to maintain US power led to an increase in US strategic build up (Lebow,1991:142). However Kauppi states that there are intervening variables preventing the shifting balance of power leading to war in the cold war world. He cites modern examples of the restraining effect of nuclear weapons, and the existence of neutrals as having a stabilizing influence by not entrapping the superpowers in a zero sum game. He also cites the role of ideology as convincing both superpowers that they could win without war (Gilpin, 1991: 47). Moreover, it has to be mentioned that while power transition theory and the resultant fear may explain the stress imposed on the states, other factors can avoid fear from resulting in war. Lebow matches the power transition theory by arguing that Athens reached the peak of its power twenty years before the war started, he con cludes with the notion that it is the perception of power that is vital to power transition theory and war, the effect of middle powers like Corinth is another factor to consider (Lebow, 1991: 128). Again, during the Cold War, even though there was not a direct confrontation, the large defence spending and the development of weapons of mass destruction demonstrates that both superpowers used fear to dissuade each other and acting on fear by arming themselves, the MAD doctrine comes into consideration. Self interest is also one of the main features of Thucydides thought, according to Gilpin, Thucydides thought that human nature was unchangeable and since human beings were determined by interest, fear and pride, they always look for to augment their wealth until others driven by the same, try to stop them (Welch, 2003: 304). In the Melian dialogue the Athenians say: Our opinion of the gods and our knowledge of men lead us to conclude that it is a general and necessary law of nature to rule wherever one can (Brown, Nardin, Rengger, 2002: 57). The speech by the Athenians shows that their only worry is of preserving their empire, and they try to convince the Melians that it is in their best interest to surrender. They ask the Melians to ignore the matter of justice and claim that it is not in Spartas interest to interfere on their behalf (Brown, Nardin, Rengger, 2002: 57). It can be stated very confidently that the Melian dialogue reflects the law of nature of self interest being the m ost useful strategy. To give a modern example of self interest, the statist concept or the national interest, observed in the Mytilenian debate. Both Diodotus and Cleon try to deal the situation to Athenss benefit, even though they have diverse opinions, as Diodotus considerations of justice are inapplicable to interstate relations (Welch, 2003: 76). An example of self interest in US doctrine on Space (Oct 2006): The United States will preserve its rights, capabilities, and freedom of action in space and deny, if necessary, adversaries the use of space capabilities hostile to US national interests (BBC News. (2006). US adopts tough new space policy. Available: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/6063926.stm. Last accessed 20 Dec 2009). In modern times the principal of self interest still guides the actions of states, however, it may not always be that of a single state, as states may cooperate to pursue their common self interest. This is highly considered by the states, as th ey understand that in a more globalised world they must re-think their actions of self interest. The expansion of international law, above all, humanitarian law, indicated that there are rules of non intervention and human rights that states are coerced to pursue. Disapproval from the international community in case of their infringement would not be in a states national or self interest. Therefore, while the national interest is an important constituent of state decision making, in the present day, the knowledge f two world wars and the predominance of liberal ideas indicate that the national interest is still imperative but not the only motive for state behaviour. Power politics is the effect of fear and self interest. To engage in power politics, the Athenians conclude: depends on strength: The standard of justice, depends on the equality of power to compel and that, in fact, the strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept (Brown, Nardin, Rengger, 2002: 52). Therefore, the skill of imposing your demands depends on relative power. As the quote from the Melian dialogue demonstrates, Athens warns Melos to submit as they are too weak to oppose. In view of the fact that there is anarchy between the states relations, the command that exists is created and continued by the powerful that inflict their power inside their sphere of influence. States, resembling to individuals, are encouraged by self interest and fear, and plea to justice only when their interest is provided. The natural right of the stronger to rule over the weaker is a rather simplistic explanation of imperialism (Brown, Nardin, Rengger, 2002: 75). A present day example is that of US warning countries that they were either with us or against us. It can be said that this is a warning to force unity in the war on terror. Thucydides adds that an actors power determines his treatment thus showing the essential nature of the balance of power in international relations. This is the safe rule to stand up to ones equals, to behave with deference towards ones superiors and to treat ones inferiors with moderation. (Brown, Nardin, Rengger, 2002: 58) A quote from US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice about nations that didnt support the war on Iraq illustrates this: Punish France, ignore Germany and forgive Russia. (Reuters. (2003). Rice Quoted Saying U.S. to Ignore Schroeder. Available: www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0525-09.htm. Last accessed 20 Dec 2009.) Thucydides finds that it is a law of nature that the weak become subject to the strong and when the opportunity of aggrandisement is offered by superior strength considerati ons of right and wrong are sacrificed to self interest (Welch, 2003,75). The notion of universal justice is not denied by Thucydides, he merely admits that for better or worse it has no limiting strength in a system composed of states not equal in power (Welch, 2003:75). On the other side, Bagby disputes that not all states choose to maximise power. The example of Sparta and how the Corinthians call them shy and weak in contrast to Athens, comes to mind. These national differences are established by King Archidamus when he tells the Spartans: be not ashamed of the slowness and dilatoriness for which they censure us most. (Bagby, 1994:138) Doyle points out that the political ideologies of Athens and Sparta and the dissimilar sectors of society they attract were a significant constituent of their conflict. Doyle reveals that Thucydides stress on the national character of Athens, in its impatient culture and its democratic institutions (Doyle, 1997:150-152). Consequently, the aim of ma ximising power can be understood as a powerful encouragement, but domestic pressures and domestic character are also vital. In conclusion, Thucydides was one of the first to create three assumptions of classical political realism: states are the main players, they take power as an end in itself or as a means to other ends and act in ways that are rational. (Keohane, Bagby, 1994:132) Although Thucydides has been interpreted in many ways, his theories about human nature: self interest, power maximisation and fear, are lasting. They describe the strains acting on states in todays world pushing them to take decisions. Even though there are many differences between today and his time Thucydides successfully makes clear the psychological and social propensity in strategy and is therefore relevant today, as the Athenians state: And it is not as if we were the first to make this law, or to act upon it when made: we found it existing before us, and shall leave it to exist for ever after us; all we do is to make use of it, knowing that you and everybody else, having the same power as we have, would do the same as w e do.

Bulima Nervosa Essay -- Research Eating Disorder Essays

Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia nervosa is a disease that predominately affects young females. Since the origination of its medical definition various studies have been implemented to examine the cause of onset and effects of bulimia nervosa. There have also been studies surveying the long-term outcome of bulimia nervosa. These long-term studies have analyzed such relationships as age, employment status, social status and marital status and bulimia nervosa. By using three scientific studies of long-term outcome of bulimia nervosa, this paper will try and evaluate the research obtained and offer critical suggestions to help further studies on this topic. The first study, "Bulimia nervosa: a 5-year follow-up study," uses a follow up sample of thirty-six patients, which consisted of 72%of the original sample. The original sample was comprised of fifty patients who were consistently referred to the Academic Department of Psychiatry at the Royal Free Hospital. Of the fifty patients, one was male. All of the patients were diagnosed with bulimia nervosa during their initial visit and met DSM-III criteria for bulimia. The ages of the sample ranged from 14 to 40 years with a mean age of 23.5. Also the onset of the disease ranged from 10 to 36 years of age with a mean of 19 years. The follow-up study began no less than five years after their initial visit with an average duration of 5.10 years. The patients were contacted through the mail, and of these fifty patients, 41 were traced, one had died, 5 were unable or refused to participate and 36agreed to participate. The study evaluated the general outcome of each patient, which consisted of th ree categories: Good outcome, Intermediate outcome and Poor outcome. The poor behavioral outcome g... ...er to be cured of the disease through support of a relationship and satisfactory social outcome. This study gives a general association. Again, I also find it hard to distinguish treatment programs since each case is individual. Yet, perhaps with more long-term studies in the future bulimia nervosa will be thoroughly understood, and the difficulties I mentioned will be obsolete. Works Cited: Dayson, D., Johnson-Sabine, E. & Reiss, D.(1992). Bulimia Nervosa: A 5-Year Follow-Up Study. Psychological Medicine, 22(4), 951-959. Johnson-Sabine, E. & Reiss, D.(1995). Bulimia Nervosa: 5-year Social Outcome and Relationship to Eating Pathology. International Journal of Eating Disorders,18(2),127-133. Keel, P.K., Mitchell, J.E., Miller, K.B., Davis, T.L. & Crow, S.J. (1999). Long-term Outcome of Bulimia Nervosa. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56(1), 63-69.

Effects of Teen Pregnancy Essay

A child is like the icing on top of a cake, a finishing touch to a married couple’s journey on earth together. If perfectly planned and periodically monitored, a woman’s pregnancy will be one of the most unforgettable experiences she will ever have. To be able to carry out a safe pregnancy, the ideal age to get impregnated is from the early twenties to the early thirties. This is the time the female reproductive system is fully developed and mature enough to handle multiple activities such as the fertilization of an egg, the carrying of a fertilized egg to fetal maturity, and the nurturing of the newborn by means of milk production (Bullock 1087). Also, if the woman is psychologically ready and wanting to have a child, she will not have a hard time going through the process because of acceptance of the situation, support of the family around her and if married, the spouse’s longing to have a child with her. Unfortunately this is not always the case. The adolescent stage is the period during which the person becomes physically and psychologically mature and acquires a personal identity, from twelve to eighteen years of age (Kozier 385). The establishment of an identity is the psychosocial task of an adolescent according to Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory. Failure to establish an identity will lead to role confusion (Kozier 387). Role confusion poses a threat to the teenager’s social wellbeing. The teenager maybe at a loss as to what her role in society might be or what career path she would take and if she will even go to college. Adolescents are almost always experiencing a roller coaster of emotions in their search for an identity. They tend to look for people with similar preferences and would not want to be seen with other people who do not share the same characteristics as they have, they begin to idolize a person and want to be just like him or her, they become rebellious, they demonstrate forbidden behaviors, they seek attention and admiration from the opposite sex and choose their career paths. Because of the physical changers that are happening to their bodies, they tend to be curious and experimental with these changes. â€Å"Adolescents are sexually active and may engage in masturbation as well as heterosexual and homosexual activity†(Kozier 387). Statistics show that more than 800,000 teens get pregnant each year which places the United States as one of the highest among industrialized countries (Teen Pregnancy: Reality Check). As to why this happens, people can only speculate and come up with studies, surveys and interview. There are however identified risk factors for teenage pregnancy. â€Å"These include: family situations with regular conflict between members, violence and sexual abuse in childhood, unstable housing arrangements, poor school performance, poor school attendance, low socioeconomic background, family history of teenage pregnancies, low maternal education, father’s absence, low self-esteem, Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander and living in rural and remote areas† (Teenage pregnancy some facts). Dealing with adolescent pregnancy does not only have serious physical effect, but psychological as well. The adolescent is at risk for PIH, iron deficiency anemia, preterm delivery, and cephalopelvic disproportion because her own physical growth maybe inadequate to support the growth and delivery of the fetus. PIH or pregnancy induced hypertension is the second leading cause of maternal death in the United States. This illness is a combination of hypertension, edema and proteinuria during pregnancy (Bullock 93). Iron deficiency anemia or IDA occurs when there is a considerable lower than normal amount of Iron in the blood. Iron is needed by the blood in order to effectively transport oxygen to various parts of the body. Fortunately this can be easily corrected by taking oral supplements of Iron as prescribed by the doctor (Bullock 356). Preterm delivery, which is 36 weeks of gestation or life inside the woman’s womb, is a serious threat for both the fetus and the mother. The normal term is 37 weeks to 40 weeks and less that that the fetus will not be mature enough to live outside the mother’s uterus. The pregnant adolescent’s nutrition may not also be adequate enough, resulting to malnutrition. Prenatal care may also be delayed because the teenager maybe in denial, hence the fetus might not be well taken care of resulting to deficiencies and fetal abnormalities. As for the infant, he or she is susceptible to having lower birth weights, increased infant mortality, increased risk of hospital admission in early childhood, less supportive environments, poorer cognitive development, and if female, a higher risk of becoming pregnant during the adolescent period, as compared to infants born of older women (Teenage pregnancy: trends). Psychologically, a teenager is prone to postnatal depression compared to older women. Reasons for this include societal attitudes, lack of support from family and isolation, and financial pressures (Teenage pregnancy implications). There is also a tendency for the teenage mother to be abandoned by their male partners, especially during birth. Being alone in a very hard process can sometimes be the hardest thing that teenage mothers go through. Not only are their partners abandoning them, but the stigma attached to teenage pregnancy also affects the family of the teenager. There seems to be feelings of alienation from the teenager’s family. All of these may add up resulting to more negative feelings towards oneself, more questioning of identity hence role confusion, wasted dreams and impossibility of going back to her education. All the emotional stress may even lead to a mental illness. Efforts are being made to lower the number of teen pregnancies. A number of organizations have been established and there are even pregnancy prevention programs for males. Education maybe the key, with these programs discussing the consequences of early sexual activities like unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Contraception is strongly advocated, even sex education has been really pushed through, and sexual abstinence until marriage has been a strong banner for these programs. The family physician’s or any health care personnel’s role is also significant. They will be able to explain and elaborate more on the nature of the consequences of sexually transmitted diseases and early pregnancy to teens. In fact, in a study entitled, â€Å"Explaining Recent Declines in Adolescent Pregnancy in the United States: The Contribution of Abstinence and Improved Contraceptive Use† it showed how much the pregnancy rates declined over the past 7 years. Improvements in contraceptive use included increases in the use of condoms, birth control pills, withdrawal, and multiple methods and a decline in nonuse. The overall pregnancy risk index declined 38%, with 86% of the decline attributable to improved contraceptive use. Among adolescents aged 15 to 17 years, 77% of the decline in pregnancy risk was attributable to improved contraceptive use† was the result of the study by John S. Santelli, MD, MPH, Laura Duberstein Lindberg, PhD, Lawrence B.  Finer, PhD and Susheela Singh, PhD. Sharing intimacy with another person is always a personal choice. But the responsibilities that come with it are not. The freedom of having a choice comes with a price, the burden of being unprepared to raise your own child. And everything else you pick up the broken pieces after that. It matters how much strength and courage you have, how much you can carry alone. But it is important to know that life does not end when hardships begin, it’s just begun.

Childhood Obesity Obesity And Obesity - 1515 Words

Within the past 30 years, the rate of overweight and obese children has been growing at an alarming rate. The cause of this increasing problem is due to lack of physical activity, poor eating habits, and genetics. Childhood obesity can also lead to conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, asthma, and bone problems later on in life. The prevalence of obesity varies among ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and age. Hispanics (22.4%) and non-Hispanic black youths (20.2%) are more likely to be overweight and obese compared to the non-Hispanic white (14.1%) and non-Hispanic Asian youth (8.6%) (CDC.gov, 2014). Children of low income-to-poverty families are also more vulnerable being overweight and obesity. These families usually live in communities with little grocery stores, great availability of fast food restaurants, and limited access to healthcare. The older children get, the more the obesity rates are climbing. Younger children are less likely to be overweight and obese because their parents have more control over what they are eating. Growing up means learning to make your own decisions and taking care of yourself, which also means having the choice to intake unhealthy food and staying active. Childhood obesity trends in the U.S. vary among states and regions. The population of the Southern states has at least 15.1% of obese children compared to the Midwest’s and Northeast’s 10 .1% (Caprio, S. et al, 2008). The Journal of American Medical Association did find a decline inShow MoreRelatedChildhood Obesity : A Obesity1247 Words   |  5 PagesChildhood Obesity: A Review to Prevent the Risk Factors of Childhood Obesity in Our Community. The rates of childhood obesity Worldwide are alarmingly high! Obesity is a global nutritional concern and leads to horrible consequences on our children and becomes a worldwide pandemic. 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